Chemistry Archives

Acid, Base and Salt

Acid+Base= Salt

Acid: Acids are sour.

PH Paper:

Litmus paper is made of Lychens (Algae+Fungi). Lichens is an air pollutant indicator means in the presence of Sulpher it does not exist

PHScale:

PHScale is used to check the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is represented by -log[H⁺]. Discovered by
SPL Sorreson. Note: The PH meter is discovered by Beckmen

Acid:

According to Arrhenius acid increases the concentration of H⁺ ions in solution.
HCL → H⁺+ Cl^–
According to Bronsted a substance that donates proton is called acid.
Metal + H₂O = H⁺ions
Acid change
Blue litmus→Red
Methyl orange→Pink
Phenolphalein→No change
Turmeric→No change

Base

According to Arrhenius Base increases the concentration of OH^– ions in solution.
NaOH → Na⁺ + OH^–
According to Bronsted a substance that accepts the proton is called base.
NaOH → Na⁺ + OH^–
Base change:
Red litmus→Blue
Methyl orange→Yellow
Phenolphalein→Pink
Turmeric→Red

Buffer Solution:

A solution whose Ph scale value does not change when we add some amount of acid/ base to it called a buffer solution. eg. CH₃COONH₄, NH₄CN₄ , protein, amino acid.
Acidic Buffer= Acetic Acid + Sodium acetate
Basic Buffer= Sodium Hydroxide + Ammonium Chloride

HCL (Hydrochloric Acid):

Making of HCL
NaCl+ H₂So₄ →NaHSo₂+HCL
HCL was discovered by→Johann Rudolf Glauber and later Preistly obtained in the purest form.
Also called Royal water, Muriatic acid, Gastric acid
Used as Bathroom Cleaner, Bleaching of Glass, tanning of leathers, etc
Used in making Chlorine and Aqua-regia
*Note: Aqua regia= the ratio of concentrated HCL and Concentrated HNo₃ in 3: 1
*Aqua regia is used to dissolve Gold and Platinum.
Used as a solvent to dissolve noble gases.

Acid rain

H₂So₄ and HNo₃are found in the acid rain. The pH of acid rain is 5.6.
So₂ and No₂ are responsible for acid rain and also cause stone/ marble cancer. The Taj Mahal’s colour changes into yellowish due to acid rain.

HNO₃ Nitric Acid (शोरे का अम्ल):

Also called Aqua-Fortis. Made by the Ostwald Process in which Pt (Platinum) is used as a catalyst.
Used in making fertilizers (here we used ammonium nitrate)
used in making TNT (2,4,6-Trinitro Tulane). TNT is used in land minings made by Julius Wilbrant.

H₂So₄ Sulphuric Acid

King of chemicals/ Oil of vitriol
Used in petrol purifier, Paints making and battery acid.
Lead storage batteries contain H₂So₄= 32% and Dilute water= 68%
Made by the contact process/ Chamber process (Catalyst=Pt).

H₃PO₄ Phosphoric Acid

Salt of phosphoric acid makes our bones.

Note: Ascorbic acid is the source of vitamin C, Uric acid found in the urine of Mammals
caused Gauts arthritis and Oxalic acid is used to remove stains from clothes.

Sequence of Strong and weak acids:

Strong Acids
HCL > HNO₃>H₂SO₄ > CH₃COOH
Note: Organic Acids are weak acids.
Halogen group sequence
HI > HBr > HCL > HF
Strong Bases
KOH and NaOH

Some Important Points:

Acid + Carbonate = CO₂ Gas ↑
Acid + Metals (except Cu) = H₂Gas ↑
Identification of CO₂ :
When we add CO₂ to Ca(OH)₂, it turns Milky in colour, due to the formation of Calcium Carbonate
some important formulae :
* Methyle Alcohol = Sprite [ CH3OH ]
* Ethyl Alcohol = Alcohol [ C₂H₅OH ]
* Acetic Acid = Vinegar [ CH3COOH ]

Hard Water:

Hard water is the salt of Ca and Mg.
There are two types of Hardness of Water
1. Temporary Hardness 2. Permanent Hardness
Temporary Hardness of water:
In Temporary hardness, the carbonate of Mg and Ca are found,[ Ca (HCo₃)₂ and Mg(HCo₃)₂].
and this hardness is removed by boiling the water.
Permanent Hardness of Water:
Sulphate of Ca and Mg are found [ MgSo₄, CaSo₄ ]
and this permanent hardness can be removed by adding (i) Zeolite, (ii) washing Soda and (iii) EDTA [Ethylene Di-amine Tetra Acetate]

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What is polymerization? Types of polymers and examples

What is Polymerization? Types of Polymers and their examples

Chemistry

Polymerization Definition:

Polymerization is the process in which a large number of small molecules combine to form a large chain-like structure called polymerization. The small molecules are called Monomer. The monomer is the basic unit of the polymer.

Monomer→Polymerization→Polymer

Examples of some polymerization changes

Amino Acid→Protein
Glucose→starch and glycogen
Ethylene/ ethene→polythene

Natural polymers and synthetic or man-made polymers:

1. Natural polymers: Polymers which are obtained from plants and animals are naturally called natural polymers. These are water-based polymers. Examples of natural polymers are cellulose, natural rubber, silk, wool, wood, skin etc.

2. Synthetic or man-made polymers: Polymers that are produced by chemical reactions in laboratories are called synthetic polymers. Examples of synthetic polymers are Bakelite, polythene, Nylons, Teflon etc.

Thermosetting polymers and Thermoplastic polymers:

1. Thermosetting polymers: polymers that on heating do not soften and cannot be remoulded are called Thermosetting polymers. Examples of thermosetting polymers are Bakelite, urea etc

2. Thermoplastic polymers: Polymers which on heating capable of softening and remoulding are called thermoplastic polymers. Examples of thermoplastic polymers are polythene, Polypropene, PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride), polystyrene, PET (Poly-Ethylene-Teraphthalate ), Polycarbonate, etc.

The most important synthetic polymers

1. Bakelite: The monomer of Bakelite is (Phenol + Formaldehyde). It is a Thermosetting polymer. The Bakelite is used in making electric appliances, combs, TV cases, buttons etc

Polymerization

2. Melamine Formaldehyde Resin: It is a Thermosetting polymer. They are used in making non-breakable crockeries.

3. Urea: The first man-made polymer is urea. It is a Thermosetting polymer. The chemical formula for urea is (NH₂-CO-NH₂). where NH₂ represent Carbamide.

4. PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride): It is a thermoplastic polymer. The monomer for PVC is Vinyl Chloride. PVC is used in making Pipes, raincoats, bags etc

5. PHBV (Poly-Hydrated-Butrate-CoHydroxy-Velerate): A thermoplastic polymer used in making Drug capsules due to its bio-degradable properties.

6. Natural Rubber/ elastomer/ plantation rubber: The monomer for natural rubber is Latex Rubber ( latex is the bark of a tree). Natural rubber is also called Isoprene (2-methyl 1,3-Butadine).

Vulcanisation of rubber: For hardening the natural rubber we add sulphur (5%-10%) in it called vulcanisation of rubber and in condensation of polymerization, loss of water takes place.

Synthetic Fibres/thread:

1. Nylon-6: It is a synthetic fibre, used in making tyre cords and carpets. The monomer of nylon-6 is Caprolactum.

2. Nylons-6,6: It is also a synthetic fibre, used in making toothbrushes. The monomer of Nylon-6,6 is Stupid acid and Hexamethylene Di-amine.

3. Rayon: Rayon is called artificial silk. Used in making sportswear and summer dresses. The monomer of rayon is cellulose.

4. Polyacrilonitrite: Also called Orlon or artificial wool.

5. Polyester: It is also terelene. The monomers of polyester are Dicarboxylic acid and ethene diol.

6. Buna-N: It is also a synthetic fibre used in making oil seals. The monomer of Buna-N are 1-3 Butadiene and acrolyne.

7. Buna-S: A synthetic fibre used in resolving tyres. The monomers of Buna-S are 1,3-butadiene and Styrene.

8. Teflon: Also a synthetic fibre used in making non-sticking utensils. The monomer of Teflon is Carbon tetrafluoride

9. Glyptol: It is a thermosetting polymer used in making paints. It is formed by ethylene glycol and phthalic acid.

10. Lexan: used in making bullet proof jackets.

11. Perspex: used in making glass windows of cars and rail.

12. Dacron: A synthetic fibre used in making insulation, food packaging and making plastic bottles. The monomer of dacron is Ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. Dacron is an example of a thermoplastic polymer.

Note: Bisphenol A (BPA) is an industrial chemical mixed with plastics and found in various products like bottles, water supply pipes etc. We must buy products BPA-free. BPA affects on brain and behavior of children.

What is Polymerization? Types of Polymers and their examples Read More »

Atom

An atom is the basic unit of matter. It consists of a nucleus containing positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons, surrounded by negatively charged electrons that orbit the nucleus in shells.
Atomic Theory is given by John Dalton

Quark:

The smallest part of the atom is called a quark.
Quark ‹ atom

Amedeo Avagadro

Amedeo Avagadro’s Number = 6.022 x 10^23.Avagadro’s Constant (N_A)= 6.0222 x 10²³ Mol^-1
01 Mol of Carbon (C-12) in gram=6.022 x 10²³
C-12 i.e 12 gram= 6.022 x 10²³or 0.12 gram= 6.022 x 10²¹ or 06 gram= ½. 6.022 x 10²³

Nucleus, Electron, Proton, Neutron:

Nucleus: Discovered by Rutherford
Electron: Discovered by JJ Thomson and got the Nobel Prize in 1906. The charge on an electron is -1.6022 x 10^-19 C and the Mass on an electron is 9.1 x10^-31 kg. Note: JJ Thomson also discovered the Mass Spectrometer, which measures the Mass of the smallest Particle.
Proton: Discovered by Rutherford and got the Nobel Prize in 1908. The charge on a Proton is +1.6022 x 10^-19 C and the Mass on a proton is 1.67 x10^-27 kg. Note: Goldstein discovered the Canal Ray/Anode Ray and later the same Canal Ray/Anode Ray known as Proton
A Canal Ray/Anode Ray is the ray of a proton and a Cathode Ray is the beam of an electron
Neutron: Discovered by Chadwick and got the Nobel Prize in 1935. The charge on a neutron is zero and the Mass on a neutron is 1.674 x10^-27 kg.
Positron (The Anti-Particle of Electron): Discovered by Anderson.
Neutrino (The Chargeless and Massless Particle): Discovered by Pauli

Atomic Number = Number of electrons/ or number of Protons
Atomic Mass = Neutron + Proton [sum of both]
Formula to find out the total number of electrons in the n^th shell= 2 x n²

Atom

for example: K= 2 x 1¹ = 2, L= 2 x 2² = 8, M= 2 x 3² = 18, N= 2 x 4² = 32
where K, L M, N are the shells in which electrons revolve around the nucleus and s, p, d, f are the sub-shell of the K/L/M/N shell respectively. The number of electrons in the s, p, f, and d sub-shell are 2, 6, 10, and 14 respectively.
for example, Potassium (K)= 19

Shell	K	L	M	N
Sub-shell	s	s,p	s,p,d	s,p,d,f
No of electrons	2	2,6	2,6	1

No of electrons in the L shell are 08, and for stability 01 electron goes to the N orbit of sub-shell (according to the Octate Rule given by Kossel and Lewis)

Isotopes, Isobar, Isotones:

Isotopes: Elements having the same number of protons (p) are called Isotopes.
for example, C-12, C-13, C-14 have same number of Protons = 6
Isobars: Elements having the same number of atomic masses (p+n) are called Isobars.
for example, N-14 and C-14 have same Atomic Mass = 14
Isotones: Elements having the same number of Neutrons (n) are called Isotones.

for example, C-13 and N-14 have same number of Neutrons = 7

Elements	Isotopes		(p)	Isobars	(p+n)	Isotones	(n)
C-12	6	12	6
C-13	6	13	7
C-14	6	14	8
N-14	7	14	7

Here C-12 = atomic number of carbon is 12 and N-14= Nitrogen (atomic number 14)
C-14 is a Radioactive element, used in the Carbon Dating Method to estimate the age of fossils.
The uranium-lead method is used to estimate the life of Earth (life of Earth=3.5 billion years).
Due to the Low “Half-life period” Isotopes are used for the detection or Treatment of diseases.
For example: a) Na-24: to detect Blood cancer
b) P-32: Blood cancer in WBCs (WBCs normal life=8k-10k, cancer WBCs life=20k-40k )
c) Co-60: used in general cancer treatment
d) I-131: For thyroid cancer
e) Radium-223: For Bone cancer
f) Arsenic-74: For Brain cancer

Proteium, Deutrium, Tritium

₁H¹(Protium)	₁H² (Deutrium)	₁H³ (Trituim)
₁₈Ar⁴⁰	₁₉K⁴⁰	₂₀Ca⁴⁰

₁H³ the lightest Radioactive element, discovered by Rutherford, ₁H³emits only β-Rays.

In our earth’s atmosphere, the sequence of availability of elements
N₂(78%)> O₂(21%)>Argon(0.9%)> CO₂(0.03%)
Among the inert gases, Argon is present maximum in the atmosphere.
Hydrogen is more than Helium in the universe.

Atomic Model:

JJ Thomson Model: Also called Watermelon/Raisin/Plum-Pudding Model
Neils Bhor Model: Also called the Planetary Model.

Heavy Water Vs Normal Water:

Heavy Water(D2O): (Note: Not Hard water) Molecular Mass=20μ (2*2+16*1=20)
Discovered by Uray and Miler. Heavy water is used as a moderator in Nuclear reactions. The authorised centre for making heavy water in India is Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (Trombay-Mumbai-Maharastra).
Normal Water(_H2O): Molecular Mass=18μ (1*2+16*1=18)

Atom Read More »

Chemistry Important facts and Discoveries

1 Comment / Chemistry

Chemistry Important Facts and Discoveries

Chemistry Important Facts related to elements
- Highest melting point→ Tungsten (W), 3500^•c
- Lowest Melting Point→ Helium (He)
- Most reactive elements→ Solid: Lithium (Li), Liquid: Cs, Gas: F
- Most Stable element→ Tellurium (Te)
- Smallest atom→ Hydrogen
- largest atom→ Cs
- Most electro +ve→ Cs (among stable), Fr (Overall)
- Total Gaseous elements→ 11
- Total liquid elements→ 4 [ bromine, gallium, cesium, mercury ]
- Total solid elements → 89
- volatile ‘d-block’→ Zn, Cd, Hg
- Most abundant on earth→ O₂
- Most Rare on earth→ Astatine (At)
- Most abundant Metal→ Al, Fe
- Metal with the highest oxidation Number→ Ruthenium (Ru), Osmium (Os)
- Strongest Base→ Cs(OH)
- Strongest Basic oxide→ Cs₂O
- Most Poisonous element→ Plutonium

Electron-Affinity Vs Electron-Negativity

Electron-Affinity: power to pull electrons and also keep them with itself
Electon-affinity Decreases from UP→Down in the periodic table. Highest affinity: Cl (chlorine)
Lowest affinity: Noble gas
Electon-Negativity: power only to pull the electrons toward itself
Electron-Negativity Increase from Left→Right in the periodic table. Highest electon-Negativity: Florine. Lowest: Cs
- Elements kept under Kerosene Oil (MITTI KA TEL)→ Na, K, Cs, Rubidium
- Bridge metal→ Na, Mg
- Nobel metal→ Au, Pt
- Amphoteric metal→ (Zn, Al, Sn, Pb)
  Amphoteric: Which react as both Acid and base
- Amphoteric Non-metal→ Si
- Metalloid (metal + Non-metal)
  Boron, Si, Germanium, Arsenic, Antimony, Tellurium
- Heaviest metal→ Os
- Hardest Narural→ Diamond
- Dry Bleacher→ O₃
- Natural Explosive→ NCl₃
- Oldest known organic acid→ CH₃COOH (acetic acid)
- Freon gas→ CF₂Cl₂
- Strongest oxidizing agent→ F
  (due to small size and high electro +ve)
- Strongest reducing agent→ among Halogen: I (Iodine)and totally: Lithium
Important discoveries in chemistry:
- Kinetic theory of gases→ Maxwell
- Chemical equilibrium→ Le-Chatlier
- Conservation of mass→ Lavoisier
- Law of octate→ New Land
- Nuclear fission→ Otto Hahn & Strassman
- Discovry of Nitrogen (N₂₎→Lavoisier
- Valance bond theory→ Pauli-slater
- Hybridisation theoy→ Sidwick-Powell
- Helium→ Lockyer & Frank land
- Frist law of thermodynamics→ Helmholtz
- H₂SO₄→ Le Favre
- Gaseous diffusion→ Grahm
- Ozone (O₃)→ Van Marum
- Gaseous equation→ van der wall
- Mesons→ Yukava
- X-ray→ Roentzen
- Neucleus & Nuclear reaction→ Rutherford
- Wave Nature of light→ Max Plank
- Ammonia, Laughing gas→ Pristly
- Periodic table→Mandelebv
- Modern periodic table→ Mosley
- long periodic table→ Neils bhore
- Molecular orbital theory→ Hund & Mulliken
- Radium, Plutonium→ Marrie curie
- Benzene→ Kekule
- Cement→ Josheph espidon
- Electolysis→ Michal faraday
- law of partial pressure & Atomic model→ John dalton
- Radio activity→ henry becquerel
- Potassium and sodium→ Humphery Davy
- Wave nature of elctron→ Davison & germer
- HCL→Johann Rudolf Glauber

Chemistry Important facts and Discoveries Read More »

sscprepo

Chemistry

Acid, Base and Salt

Acid+Base= Salt

PH Paper:

PH Scale:

Acid:

Base

Buffer Solution:

HCL (Hydrochloric Acid):

Acid rain

HNO3 Nitric Acid (शोरे का अम्ल):

H2So4 Sulphuric Acid

H3PO4 Phosphoric Acid

Sequence of Strong and weak acids:

Some Important Points:

Hard Water:

What is Polymerization? Types of Polymers and their examples

Polymerization Definition:

Natural polymers and synthetic or man-made polymers:

Thermosetting polymers and Thermoplastic polymers:

The most important synthetic polymers

Synthetic Fibres/thread:

Atom

Atom

Quark:

Amedeo Avagadro

Nucleus, Electron, Proton, Neutron:

Isotopes, Isobar, Isotones:

Proteium, Deutrium, Tritium

Atomic Model:

Heavy Water Vs Normal Water:

Chemistry Important facts and Discoveries

Chemistry Important Facts and Discoveries

Important discoveries in chemistry:

PHScale:

HNO₃ Nitric Acid (शोरे का अम्ल):

H₂So₄ Sulphuric Acid

H₃PO₄ Phosphoric Acid